Angers Fall 2011

The interwar years of the 20^th century were an emotional roller coaster for every country in Europe. Economies had been destroyed and the exhaustion of war had set in, as well as the Great Depression that would lead into World War II. Many countries held on to any successes they could salvage to avoid appearing weak. For France, that hope would be to rise again in the world of luxuries and art, which they were slowly falling behind in at the time. More specifically, France put their efforts into promoting new standards for design, eventually called Art Deco. This new art would settle in Western France with its greatest legacy in Angers, La Maison Bleue.

            Art Deco is a broad definition of art with just one standard; all works had to be modern, with no copies of historical styles (Goss). The promotion of this new design began in the early 1900′s but was interrupted by World War I. Luckily, the war only served as a delay and the style soon flourished as countries all over Europe desired these beautiful, modern luxuries. Art Deco also helped promote post-Impressionism art in the form of Fauvism and Cubism by using the same techniques of simple geometric shapes with vivid colors in paintings or small decorative pieces, although it stretches its limits to enormous glittering buildings. Unfortunately, this expensive taste could not last long and the arrival of the Great Depression brought about a need for the bare minimum. Before World War II began, people were slowly reverting back to older designs that reminded them of better times, characterized as the “Return to Order.” Once the war ended, people were solely focused on affordability in order to rebuild their lives after the destruction of World War II. (Goss)

Isidore Odorico was the artist with whom La Maison Bleue is associated. He created the mosaic facing on the building that would become one of the last surviving pieces of Art Deco. Isidore came from Italy, where thousands were emigrating to escape post-war poverty. Many of these refugees flocked to France due to the important design movement that involved large construction projects and settled in Paris and eventually in towns such as Rennes and Angers in Western France. La Maison Bleue begins at the bottom as a sandy color, moves up to pieces of blue, then to designs of blue and gold and finally at the top is consumed with bright colors of blue and gold. The idea of the designers was to slowly blend the building into the sky the farther you look up, hence the staggering floors. The bathrooms are presumably the centerpiece in the apartments and are just as magnificently decorated as the outside. Construction began in 1927 and finished in 1929, with eight floors and materials consisting primarily of concrete for the main structure and hand-cut glass pieces for the mosaics.

This exceptional building was the end point of the Art Deco era in architectural decoration and design and, to many, remained the greatest work of Art Deco in the world. The period of Art Deco displays the desire to bring France back as the leader of luxury products and trade as well as modernization. The end of Art Deco and the war did bring about a new era of efficiency and materials for affordable, yet still modern, decorations and architecture and ended the high status associated with Art Deco pieces, which allowed a greater sense of class equality.

A gallery of art deco pieces besides architecture:

http://www.20thcentury-decorative-arts.co.uk/index.html

References:

Goss, Jared. “French Art Deco.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2000. New York City, New York. Web. 14 November 2011. <http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/frdc/hd_frdc.htm>.

Cailleteau, Jacques. Pays de la Loire Angers Maine-et-Loire. Angers, France. Service Regional de l’Inventaire General. 1989.

About the Author:

Isabelle George is a sophomore studying Global Studies with a track of International Conflict from Llano, TX.

Disneyland Paris

            Disney has always been an iconic image of America and greatly enjoyed by all ages and nationalities. That is, at least, what the minds behind Euro Disney thought when they began drawing up plans for a Disneyland in Europe. They eventually decided on building the park in France due to the access to a large area of flat land near Paris and in an accessible location for all of Europe and began plans in 1985. By 1992, the founders opened the park with high hopes, which would soon be disappointed. Unfortunately, France was unwilling to accept such an Americanized amusement park until Disney adjusted to its surroundings.

Reactions were quite the opposite from what the Euro Disney founders expected. Many complained that a Disney-themed park in France was an insult because it did not represent French entertainment. Some insinuated that a Disneyland park was unappreciated due to its sense of “immature” entertainment, which contradicted the “intellectual” entertainment tradition of the French. This is reasonable, because from what I’ve learned and experienced in France, they are very patriotic/nationalistic and must have found an obviously American based park to be outrageous. One of the French critics described it bluntly, “A horror made of cardboard, plastic and appalling colors; a construction of hardening chewing gum and idiotic folklore taken straight out of comic books written for obese Americans” (Riding). Another blames the French for admiring and condoning American fashion and culture. Some other forms of resistance to the opening were transportation blockades to Disney Paris and some went as far as setting off bombs near the park in hopes of shutting off the electricity.

Although there was much controversy, not all responses were critical. The majority of France’s youth enjoyed the park and it left them wanting more. Even many young adults found that the park was a fun attraction and that it was a good experience for “those who can never go to the United States to see reality.” (Riding)

   Disney took several approaches to make the Disney park more appealing to the French and other Europeans. One major annoyance was the important role of wine in French culture, which conflicted with Disney’s no alcohol policy. Another was the fast food often served in America was seen as repulsive and inedible by the French. The last main controversy was that English was the required language for the staff—particularly for staff meetings. Eventually, all of these flaws were reformed in some way. Today the park is the only Disney park allowed to serve wine and beer, they increased their standards for food and made French and English required languages for staff. The main language spoken by the character actors is English and, from what I saw, most of them were British.

Disneyland Paris has become the number one attraction in Europe, probably because its appeal to diversity and main goal being to reach out to, not only French, but to Europeans as a whole. The main group of visitors, surprisingly from the amount of resistance in the beginning, comes from France with nearly fifty percent. The United Kingdom comes in second place with thirteen percent and various countries after that between two and ten percent (Euro Disney S.C.A.). In the end, Disney Paris turned out to be another major success by Disney.

For more information:

http://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/13/world/only-the-french-elite-scorn-mickey-s-debut.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm

http://corporate.disneylandparis.com/investorrelations/publications/index.xhtml

About the Author:

Isabelle George is a sophomore studying Global Studies with a track of International Conflict from Llano, TX.

 Occupy Movement

            Within the last five months, a global movement has begun called the Occupy Movement, with social and economic demands that include higher taxes on the wealthy, more jobs and school funding. With the help of Internet resources such as Twitter and Facebook, protestors have been able to make their message heard worldwide. As the movement continues, some protestors are becoming more anxious about little to no results from their governments and are now calling for a revolution. While in Ireland, I witnessed an Occupy march and read the newspaper members were passing out that depicted large, raised fists in red and the word “REVOLT” in bold red letters.

Occupy Wall Street was the first Occupy demonstration to be widely publicized on September 17th, 2011. The organization was inspired by the Arab Spring protests and other small protest movements around the globe, following the call for demonstration worldwide to rise against capitalism. The movement became global with the help of Internet resources such as Twitter and Facebook, which have been the fuel for spreading Occupy news. The use of the hashtag (#) at the beginning of the word “Occupy” directs searches on Twitter to similar posts to “#OccupyWallStreet,” another way of internationalizing the movement.

One method for recruiting and unifying such a large and diverse group of people into one goal are the versatile slogans associated with the group. The main slogan, “We Are The 99%,” is adaptable to most countries. The name of the movement is also easily adaptable; by combining the word “Occupy” universally, followed by the city’s name, allows for a local connection while  still reflecting the international goals.

As the Occupy demonstrations trickled into cities all over America, motives for newly formed demonstrations were rather unclear, not just to those on the outside, but to occupiers themselves. Many were unable to answer the simple question, “Why are you here?” Now that the movement is a few months old, protestors are able to answer the first question, but the next question is “What is the solution?” While in Dublin, we witnessed an Occupy Dame Street march. After asking a few protestors who were handing out fliers and newspapers, we got the general message of protesting corporate greed. The longer we stayed, however, the more passionate people became. One newspaper we received was called the “Socialist Worker,” with a raised fist on a red background between the two words. The header proclaimed “As Budget Comes Around We Need To REVOLT Against Austerity,” the world “revolt” printed in enormous red letters. The further I read into  the newspaper, the more it reminded me of other Communist revolutions, such as the Bolshevik Revolution. The author urges people to revolt against capitalism, a system that is clearly not working– unfortunately, it was difficult to take the paper seriously with all the grammar and editing mistakes.

After reading the paper, we began asking the occupiers with the fliers what they planned to do next? Vague would be an understatement for the answers we received. They were essentially the same answers as to why they were there; to tax the wealthy, abolish corporate greed and create jobs. No one really had the answer as to how they were going to get to that point. Later, we settled near the assembly after the march to hear what some of the speakers had to say. There was a lot of passion and anger, but no suggestions for a solution. There were several complaints about the language that was used to fire up the crowd.

Despite the unprofessional rhetoric, the event was seemingly well organized, with policemen walking peacefully next to the march. I’ve been keeping up with events in America–specifically Austin and found Dublin was very different. From the news articles and videos I’ve read and seen, there have been conflicts between American occupiers and police forces armed with pepper spray and arrests. It will be very interesting to have experienced Occupy movements in Europe, then go back to America and compare the two.

The question that perplexes me is whether the occupiers want Communism or not. The movement is backed by Socialist and Neo-Nazi parties, but many occupiers do not mention embracing any political ideology. Do they want a Socialist government or capitalist reforms? This connects to globalization because, not only is it a global movement, but some are calling for a revolution against, or at least the reform of the neo-liberal form of capitalism that has accelerated economic globalization in the last few decades. (Steger) It seems like history in the making.

For more information on the Occupy movement visit these links:

http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/21/arts/design/elements-of-style-as-occupy-movement-evolves.html

http://occupywallst.org/

About the Author:

Isabelle George is a sophomore studying Global Studies with a track of International Conflict from Llano, TX.

            Paris is well known as a city with rich history and many grandiose monuments, including a gleaming white basilica best known as Sacré-Coeur. It sits atop the crown of Paris, on the tallest point in the city, surrounded by the Montmartre neighborhood. While the basilica appears to be a cathedral or parish, it is, in fact, a pilgrimage church that was built in reaction to the Franco-Prussian War as well as to the divisions that occurred in French society between pro- and anti-Church citizens during, and after, the French Revolution.

Discussions of a pilgrimage church began in 1871 between Alexandre Legentil and Hubert Rohault de Fleury, who soon began campaigning for money to build it. After France was defeated by the Prussians in the Franco-Prussian War, they felt it was a consequence for not having had a state religion for the century following the French Revolution and believed building this church would be a work of atonement (Hanser, 219). The divisions in French society were beginning to subside as each side realized, whether they sought spiritual renewal or political renewal, their goals were similar and the construction of the Sacré-Coeur was to represent both sides.

      The name of this monument was derived from a religious devotion, popular before the French Revolution, called the Sacred Heart (Sacré-Coeur), represented by a heart with a crucifix on top. Its dedication to “God and King” meant that it became a popular symbol of the counterrevolutionary movement during the Revolution, and before Louis XVI’s death, he dedicated France to the group. This group motivated Catholics to promise the construction of a church in order to prove their spirituality and to represent their political desire for the return of “God and King” (Jonas, 487).

In 1873, permission was asked of the archbishop of Paris to build the church on Montmartre, to which a reply was sent that, if the church was used for national interests and public utility, it would be allowed. These requirements would be displayed through the construction of Sacré-Coeur as a symbol of the renewal of France. After permission was granted, a competition was held to determine the architect for the church. In 1873, Paul Abadie submitted the winning design that included Romanesque mixed with Byzantine elements. Construction began in 1875 and it was opened in 1891. However, time taken for decoration and eventually World War I delayed the consecration of the church until October 16, 1919. The unfinished mosaics and stained glass windows were completed by 1920.

        On a sunny day, the Sacré-Coeur is a beautiful sight to see. All around the building, you can see Paris for miles. Unfortunately, no pictures are allowed inside, but the enormous mosaics are beautiful as well as many relics, including a statue of St. Peter, whose foot you can rub and then make a wish. There are people who come from all around the world to sit in the pews in front of the huge ceiling mosaic above the altar to pray or make pilgrimage. On top of all the beautiful art, the dim light adds a certain peaceful ambience.

The Sacré-Coeur has become a very important monument in the 20th century, despite initial criticisms. It certainly accomplishes its goal of commemorating the deep-set and complex divisions of French society that remained even a century after the French Revolution. The failed unification of State and Church resulted in the basilica remaining a reminder of divisions in society throughout the 20^th century.

For a broader look into the area surrounding Sacré-Coeur and a peek at the Jesus mosaic inside (as well as some tacky French music): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jgW0kihRM8

References:

Hanser, David A. Architecture of France: Reference Guides to National Architecture. Westport, Conn. [u.a.: Greenwood Press, 2006. Web. 30 Nov. 2011.

Jonas, Raymond A. “Monument As Ex-Voto, Monument As Historiosophy: The Basilica Of Sacré-Coeur.” French Historical Studies 18.2 (1993): 482-502. JSTOR Arts & Sciences II. Web. 30 Nov. 2011.

About the Author:

Isabelle George is a sophomore studying Global Studies with a track of International Conflict from Llano, TX.

Le Mans has a history that dates to before the Roman era, and thus, has some of the oldest and well-preserved historic monuments in its Medieval Quarter, that sits at the top of the hill, and is separated from the modern part of town. The old quarter consists of half-timbered houses, narrow cobble-stoned streets,  Gallo-Roman walls, and St. Julian’s Cathedral from the 4^th century, most famous for its enormous stained glass windows.

The city of Le Mans began on the hill that the old quarter is built on, surrounded by the Sarthe and Huisne rivers. The oldest piece of historic evidence in Le Mans is a menhir—named Le Menhir—that sits next to the front corner of the cathedral, dating from between 4000-5000 B.C. It is a symbol of Le Mans’ pagan history when Celtic tribes occupied the city.

Once defeated by the Romans in 57 B.C., the conquerors brought Roman baths the city, which were an important cultural center for socializing in Roman times. These baths are evidence of the first movement towards an urban town and used for two hundred years until the fortified Gallo-Roman walls were built, destroying most of the thermal baths. These baths were undiscovered until 1980 during construction work.

The Gallo-Roman walls were built in the 3^rd century and had a perimeter of nearly one mile and surrounded the city for centuries. They served as a symbol of imperial power and  provided protection from invasions. The entire wall is covered by geometric designs in white and black stones surrounded by red brick, which gave the city the nickname the “red city.” The fortified wall was best utilized in the 9^th century for protection at the height of Viking invasions. Along with Rome and Istanbul, Le Mans’ Gallo-Roman walls are among the best-preserved fortifications from the Roman Empire.

One of the largest cathedrals in France is located in Le Mans atop the hill, St. Julian’s Cathedral. The cathedral is dedicated to St. Julian who brought Christianity to Le Mans in the 4^th century. Not much is known of the monument erected at this time, but the structure that is known today was built between the 11^th and 15^th centuries, which is reflected in a diverse mixture of architectural styles from the Romanesque nave to the Gothic choir. It is best known for its 13^th century medieval stained glass windows that stretch all the way around the cathedral, giving it the name “Cathedral of Light.”

With just these few monuments in the medieval section of the city, one can clearly see the historical importance of Le Mans and its connection to two major influences in western civilization–the Roman Empire, the Roman Catholic Church. From the Roman-influenced fortified walls and baths, which introduced infrastructures with aqueducts and protection from the abundant invasions from Vikings and Breton at the time, to the importance of religion during the conversion from paganism to Christianity, which was a controversial religion in Roman times, and finally, the very visible changes in medieval architecture in the construction of the cathedral.

For more information on Le Mans:

http://www.lemanstourisme.com/dnn/

About the Author:

Isabelle George is a sophomore studying Global Studies with a track of International Conflict from Llano, TX.

            The Loire River Valley is home to some of the most famous castles in France, with over three hundred châteaux in the region. The Château de Brissac is located in the Maine-et-Loire department, just outside of Angers. It is the tallest château in France with seven stories and has just over two hundred rooms, giving it the name “Giant of the Loire Valley.”

            The Château de Brissac was originally built in the 11th century by the Count of Anjou, Fulk Nerra, as a fortified castle. In 1455, Pierre de Brézé, who worked for King Louis XI, rebuilt it. Brézé’s son is said to have murdered his wife for adultery and then abandoned the castle. Réné de Cossé-Brissac, a family that would become one of the oldest families in France, later purchased it from the king as a fief.

            The two towers on either side of the facade are in the Romanesque style with massive, heavy walls and significantly smaller windows near the top. The middle part of the facade is in the Baroque style, which is a type of architectural style that combined architecture with painterly, sculptural and decorative effects. During the 16th century, rampant with the Religious Wars, the château, which still served as a fortress, was partially damaged. Charles I, son of Réné, sided with the king, who gave him funds to rebuild the castle as well as naming him a Marshall of France. During the rebuilding period, which began in 1601, Charles II focused on building upwards rather than outwards–which was when the Baroque style became prominent and when the châteaufort became a château of pleasure. He planned on taking out the two medieval towers, but died before this could be completed and his son left the château the way it was, which is how it looks today. The château was ransacked during the Revolution, but was returned to the Brissac family about fifty years later, who restored it and occupy it today.

            During the tour of the Château de Brissac, we got to see several rooms filled with family artifacts and portraits. A few of the rooms in the tour included the grand salon, the medieval kitchen, and the main living room with photographs of the present day occupants and portraits of past members. One important portrait, residing in the upstairs ballroom, includes Veuve Clicquot. She was born in 1777, widowed by the age of 27, and is well known for the extremely successful brand of champagne, named after the her, Veuve Clicquot, that he took over after her husband died and exported it worldwide, making a fortune. The kitchen was the main room that resembled a look into how people of medieval times lived. The traditional utensils still remain, accompanied by cobblestone flooring and a large fireplace. The kitchen is often used for meals during festivities, many of which are held at the château, such as the Val de Loire festival and Rillauds Fair, which celebrates 16th century traditions of Brissac’s wine heritage and cuisine.

            Overall, the Château de Brissac is an interesting way to get the feel of how medieval nobility and early modern nobles lived. Though the latest member of the Brissac family, the 13th Duke of Brissac, resides there with his family, they have preserved the rooms included in the tour in their traditional form. The changes in medieval architecture are clearly visible on the facade of the château. It is also an example of a family who bought their way into nobility by purchasing a fief with a fortress from a king, then transforming it fully into a pleasure château; a common occurrence in the Early Modern period.

A virtual tour of the château is available on the main website: http://www.chateau-brissac.fr/

For more information visit:

http://www.chateaux-valdeloire.com/Brissac.html

About the Author:

Isabelle George is a sophomore studying Global Studies with a track of International Conflict from Llano, TX.

This experiential assignment initially grew out of a statue that had an impact on me while I was in Dublin.  Placed there in 1967, Edward Delaney’s Famine Memorial on St. Stephen’s Green is a haunting, modern statue that remembers the tragedy of the Great Famine in Ireland between the years of 1845 and 1854.  While the famine does not fall strictly in the 20th century, it was one element in the surge in Irish nationalism in the mid-20^th century.  I saw this statue while on a tour led by an Irishman, who stressed the importance the famine had on the Irish identity and on the Irish independence movements in the 20^th century.  The statue, the famine, and Ireland in general also highlights some of the themes we see coming to fruition through the 20^th century: nationalism, empire, and the growth of the social welfare state, for example.

English Barons arrived in Ireland in 1170, beginning the steady process of English control of Ireland.  For the next 400 years, Ireland and the English Barons began to feel more separate from England—until the reign of Henry VIII from 1485 to 1509. Henry VIII invaded Ireland and forced the Earls of Kildare (the acknowledged rulers of Ireland) to grant him the title of King of Ireland.  Henry’s successors continued to push English influence by sending English and Scottish Protestant lords to control huge swathes of land in Ireland.  By 1790, 90% of Irish land was owned by English Protestants. With the introduction a series of Penal Laws beginning in 1695 through 1728 against Catholics, many Irish found it impossible to move beyond a life of agricultural labor ties to the land.  Some examples of these Penal Codes were: forbidding Catholics from owning weapons worth more than 5 GBP, restricting access to education, preventing the purchase of land, and forbidding Catholics to practice law or hold public office.  Much of the Irish agricultural output was exported to England to support the English population. This is harsh colonial context set up the disaster of the Great Famine. For more information about chronology, see Historyonthenet’s “Northern Ireland Timeline.” http://www.historyonthenet.com/Chronology/timelinenorthernireland.htm

Though famine was not uncommon in Ireland, the years between 1845 and 1849 have been termed the Great Famine or the Great Hunger.  During this time between 1 and 1.5 million individuals died from starvation or disease brought on by starvation. The famine was caused by Phytophthora infestans. This was a slime mold that destroyed huge portions of the potato crop. One-third of the Irish population depended on the potato crop, for its calorie count and for the money it could bring in.  As crops failed, not only could Irish farm tenants not feed themselves and their families, they could not pay their rents to their (mostly Protestant, Irish or English) landlords.  Its effects were widespread: “between 1846 and 1854, 144,759 families (about 580,000 people) were evicted from their homes; 97,248 families were evicted in 1846–48 alone.” See the University College Cork’s Multitext Project In Irish History for more information: http://multitext.ucc.ie/d/Famine

Emigration from Ireland to both Britain and the United States rose sharply as the Famine years continued.  While a significant portion of Irish emigrants ended up in the United States, many more crossed to England, specifically to Liverpool, with the hope of gaining employment in the new industrial center. This is one aspect that connects the Great Famine to our course.  While the Famine occurred in the mid-19^th century, the themes of industrialization, and empire are present in their earliest forms.  England has been forced to come to terms with aspects of her empire, such as the Great Famine.  The Irish Potato famine also intensified anti-English, anti-Protestant sentiment among the Irish community, leading to powerful nationalistic movements such as the Sinn Fein (1905) to resist and overthrow any English rule and gain independence for Ireland.  The complexities of the Great Famine are still present in Ireland today (“Irish History,” University College Cork).

On our free tour of Dublin, our tour guide, Paul, gave us a very comprehensive look at the city as well as a peek into one particular modern Irish mindset.  While I don’t know if he consciously built a theme into his tour, I felt his theme was the people of Ireland—their sense of community, independence, and pig-headedness.  By the end of the tour, I had gotten a healthy dose of Irish history through the powerful lens of an Irish man.  He led us through Ireland’s fight for independence, ending at St. Stephen’s Green, where Edward Delaney’s Famine Memorial (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9-fWdBu7vTA) stands.  The statue on it’s own is a powerful work of art.

However, very early in our tour, before we arrived at St. Stephen’s Green, Paul asked our group a question: “Who here is Irish?” I was hesitant to raise my hand—I mean, I am a quarter Irish, and I know a fair amount about my ancestor’s immigrant experience, but really, I’m American.  He asked our group again, incredulous when no one raised their hand.  He made the point that the Irish are everywhere, so chances were we had some Irish in us.  As he made clear, even Barak Obama is Irish.  As the tour progressed and Paul continued his stories of heroic battles for independence, not so bright moments in Irish history, and above all the tenacious will of the Irish people, I really began to feel like I belonged to the community he was describing.  That was an interesting and welcome experience.  It’s always nice to feel connected to your roots.

The most powerful moment of the tour for me was reaching St. Stephen’s Green and the Famine Memorial statue.  Paul was a great storyteller, and he told the story of the Famine with all its gravity and tragedy, but he ended on a note of pride and hope. Yes, the famine was horrific, but it led to great strength in the Irish community and, the argument can be made, to the creation of the Republic of Ireland. As I contemplated the statue and its meaning further, I realized this statue was important not only because of the event it portrays, but the way it portrays the Famine for future generations.  The final part of this experience is slightly more personal.  As I walked through the streets of Dublin, listening to Paul tell the story of Ireland and the Irish people, I was pulled in to the narrative and realized, perhaps for the first time, what my Irish roots mean to me.  I am Irish, so in some small way, I am also part of the Irish story.

About the author:

Clare Tally-Foos, a senior studying history and religious studies, is from Kerrville, Texas. She is very involved in the St. Edward’s community as a Tour Guide on campus, a student in the Honors Program, participates in the Swim Club, and is involved in Campus Ministry.  She is also a part of Theta Alpha Kappa (the religious studies society). Clare is planning to attend graduate school next year to pursue a master’s in Museum Studies.

         Every European adventure thus far has been filled with stressful situations, beautiful landscapes, and long days.  Every one of these moments would have been best coupled with a large cup of steaming hot coffee, but my usual addiction and infatuation has not been as easily satisfied here in France in comparison to my American expectation of a large cup of Starbucks beckoning me on every corner.  However, Fall Break was my turning point from the dainty, yet potent, cups of espresso in romantic French cafés to the travel mug culture of affluent regions of England.  I noticed with every Starbucks logo I passed that each store sold more than just a cup of coffee; it marketed a culture and a brand that has made, and sometimes fought, its way into the worldwide market. Starbucks has globalized the American culture and made it readily available in a Venti cup.

         Starbucks began its reach across the globe in 1971 in the northwest United States with an image of a Norse mermaid and the spirit of Moby Dick.^[1]  The refined and wholesome image on current signs and street corners is far evolved from the original creature for the logo.  The first Siren used was a rough-looking, twin-tailed mermaid who appeared brash and was a mild brown rather than the now-famous emerald green.  The founders chose the symbol because it went with the nautical theme of coffee’s “seafaring history . . . and Seattle’s strong seaport roots.”[2] The symbol of the muse has developed over time to suit more, and often more sophisticated, tastes around the world.  This iconic logo can be seen around the world and highlights Starbucks expansion and influence.  While I saw the glowing street sign as a beacon of hope and a source of comfort during a busy holiday, many now view it as invasive toward the culture and areas each store enters.

         When Howard Schultz joined in 1982, he built up the image of a store was obsessed with coffee, atmosphere, and standards.^[3]  A trip to Milan shortly after allowed him to discover the popularity of espresso bars in Italy and the possibilities that Starbucks had as a expanding business in a desired market.  Ten years later, Starbucks had over 1000 stores in operation and branched out with their first store outside of North America in Japan.  They continued to expand their coffee, brand, and American culture to every place that accepted them, eventually opening stores in the United Kingdom in 1998.

         Yet even with this expansion, it was not until 2004 that Starbucks opened its first store in France.^[4]  This slow development shows the distinct atmosphere of France and its sensitivity to Americanization compared to other countries.  The French already had their coffee environment established with small cups of espresso served in smoky outdoor cafés surrounded by an aura of leisure; Starbucks’ ‘To-Go’ culture was a sharp contrast to the traditional style.  While the Starbucks Company adapts to the cultures that desire it and find it favorable (and flavor-able) abroad, it has not met welcoming arms in France.  This resistance can be seen in the placement of the country’s 48 successful stores throughout France, nearly half of which are located in tourist-rich Paris.  In comparison, the United Kingdom has over 727 stores spread across the country in a variety of neighborhoods and cities.  While the French culture is not “self-contained,” the globalization of Starbucks in context of French life highlights more “differences” than “sameness” that result from global culture.^[5]

         Starbucks is an international brand that has attempted to globalize American culture with a hint of spice and the smell of signature beverages. During my travels, I saw Starbucks as a popular comfort, but others may see them as an aggressive invasion. Either way, they are a company that has striven to spread their ideas and coffee around the world through a logo, consumer’s desires, and every phenomenal cup of coffee.

Everyday, one of the study abroad students mentions a need to go to Carrefour for some item or another. We enjoy the Saturday market, but each little excursion to the French “hypermarché” leads to wonderful treats and home comforts such as tea lights, gourmet cheese, or yet another jar of off-brand Nutella.  With every positive experience I have had at Carrefour, I have made it a personal challenge to find an comparable alternative in every city I visit. But where they are available, nearly all of my excursions across France have included a run-in or a stop at a Carrefour store, illustrating its transnational and worldwide reach.

Carrefour, in French, means ‘the intersection.’ This name exemplifies the image the company and grocery store has constructed for itself: to be at the major crossroads of every country and town it involves itself in.  According to their website, Carrefour has over 9600 stores in 32 countries, making it the second-largest supermarket in the world and number one in Europe.  It offers four different types of stores, Hypermarkets, Supermarkets, Convenience, and Cash & Carry, and tailors the format to the region.^[1]    Carrefour caters to a number of different cultures and areas but aims to promote “local economic development” as a private investor wherever it is present, either directly or through franchises.^[2]  In fact, it was the first store to develop the “hypermarket” concept in 1963, a combination of a supermarket and department store, leading a a revolution of the retail store.^[3]

As studied in Steger’s book, Globalization:  A Very Short Introduction, the internationizalization of Carrefour went hand in hand with the changing political approach to laissez-faire and the the global market.^[4]  As Europe opened up economically in the 1980s, Carrefour expanded its appeal by offering “produit libres,” or its version of a generic store brand, as a way to develop the approach to company’s hard discounting.^[5]  As a bargain shopper and a student keen on discounts, this label has made all the difference in which item I purchase.  Smart retailing methods such as this led to Carrefour’s ranking as the number two retail store in revenue and number three retail store in profit worldwide.^[6]  It lags far behind Wal-mart on Fortune Global 500’s ranking of global companies; Wal-mart is number one with over $400 billion in revenues while Carrefour is number 32 with with over $120.3 billion in yearly revenue.^[7]

     Carrefour is a perfect example of a global company that is experiencing the effects of a tumultuous worldwide economy.  Despite its discounts and changes in store layouts, it has seen a downturn in profits since October 2011.  A combination of lower consumer confidence in purchases and the company’s presence in a number of countries facing extensive debt has led to Carrefour’s projected 15% drop in overall profits this year.^[8]  Nevertheless, the company still aims to be a fierce competitor and offer discounts to consumers whenever possible.

Carrefour offers stores with a range of choices and locations that are wide enough to fit any college student’s budget.  The company’s many locations and extreme discounts make it reliable and attractive to consumers around the world.  It’s unfortunate that I have grown so attached to this supermarket because I will soon be leaving this area that is overrun with Carrefour stores, but that merely means I will have to stock up on a few boxes of Carrefour Discount cookies to mitigate the pain.

           Angers is a medieval town still fresh from the influences of World War II.  Its gorgeous surrounding landscapes has provided a nature-seeker’s heaven this semester, but I never imagined to literally run across a site crucial to the end of the second Great War. It is a quaint, nondescript, and a beautiful place to stop in the middle of a long exploratory run in the Anjou.  Le Pont de la Libération, located south of Angers and very close to Bouchemaine, provided a turning point for the Allies’ liberation of occupied France in 1944.        Le Pont de la Libération was originally known as Le Pont de Petit Anjou or Le Pont de Pruniers.^[1]  It is a meager bridge in comparison to the ones that now cross the Maine River, a tributary of the Loire, but it still served a purpose as a railway bridge between Angers and Cande.  The bridge is 150 meters long and 7 meters tall, making its influence in WWII even more astonishing.  This bridge allowed several large tanks to cross the river, leading to the liberation of the city of Angers and the continued expulsion of German troops from occupied France.

            Lieutenant General Patton arrived with his army to the Angers region on August 4, 1944.^[2]  The Germans had long assumed that he was the supposed leader of the First U.S. Army Group and of Operation Fortitude, the bogus missions planned for the liberation of the western coast of France to distract from the invasion of Normandy.  Therefore, German troops were surprised when Patton brought his tanks and troops to the Anjou, as it was the primary exit point of Germans fleeing the Brest Peninsula.  Patton’s army was flexible, ingenious, and improvised in any way it could, making them the ideal group of men to lead the liberation.  The original Ally plan was to bomb Angers in the interest of avoiding heavy causalities and conflict with the Germans who occupied the area.  Yet local Resistance leaders negotiated with Patton to save the city and informed him of Le Pont de Petit Anjou.  After hearing of the bridge, Patton and his men moved in to place.^[3]

            Just like nearly every other bridge crossing the Loire and its tributaries, Le Pont de Petit Anjou was meant to have been demolished with dynamite.  Patton’s men discovered a German car and soldier in place, ready to destroy the bridge and any opportunity for Ally crossing.  Yet the American soldiers were able to eliminate the German threat before the bridge was demolished.  After long hours of fighting that involved mines and heavy artillery, Patton and his ‘Red Devils’ captured the bridge on August 8, 1944.^[4]  The battle continued on the other side of the bridge and for the next three days, ending with 108 American soldiers dead. Today this battle is marked on either side of the bridge with plaques as a reminder of the French Resistance men who saved Angers and the American soldiers who liberated the city.

            Le Pont de la Libération is a quaint bridge with a history and significance that supplies it with more beauty and prestige than any combination of aesthetics could do.  I enjoy running across it as a reminder of the small, strategic points that can affect the outcome of war in surprising ways.  It is a worthwhile place to visit in the area if just to sit above La Maine and contrast the calm water and atmosphere of today with the power of war, the sound of battle, and the lives required to free a country from foreign occupation.